Human Rights and Guantanamo Essay

In 2004, the Supreme Court ruled that Guantanamo Bay detainees, most of whom have been held in the camp for years, may challenge their detention at the camp in American federal courts. (Medrano, 2006) While this is good news, at the onset this revealed a major flaw in the years-long operation of Camp Delta, the US prison camp in Guantanamo—the violation of basic human rights, a major ethical concern not only in Guantanamo but all over the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A typical cell at Guantanamo, sources say, is like a prison cell in the US, with the standard clothing and toiletries. Because most detainees are Muslims, each cell comes with a Koran, prayer beads, and an arrow pointing to Mecca. Each day even begins with a Muslim call to prayer. (Camp Delta: Guantanamo Bay, 2004) So where is human right violation here?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Human rights dictate that every prisoner has the right to remain silent, undergo a fair trial, be given the basic necessities in life, be protected against all forms of abuse, be able to exercise religious freedom, and be presumed innocent until proven guilty, among others. These are things that are mostly not enjoyed by the inmates at Guantanamo. To begin with, detainees at Camp Delta have been incarcerated there for years without undergoing trial. Most of them have been picked up from the streets, majority from Afghanistan. Some were turned over or pointed at as terrorists in exchange of the dollar rewards. Secondly, torture and physical abuse have been reported. Suicide cases were also existent. Thirdly, prisoners are virtually living in solitude, having no rights to family visit or to live communally. They are also not entitled to exercise the right to remain silent. On the contrary, they are interrogated everyday each week for hours by the military. These after the government branded the detainees enemy combatants but not prisoners of war. Thus, the detainees were deemed to be not entitled by he provisions of the Geneva Convention. But this was reversed in 2006, when a decision was made that the detainees are entitled with full protection of the Geneva Convention, changing the fate of the hundreds left at Guantanamo Bay camp. (Sources: Rights pledge for Guantanamo detainees, 2006)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ethics dictate that human rights should be followed and respected by everyone, towards everyone. Whether terrorists or not, these detainees are entitled to fair and proper treatment by their captors including such time that they are proven innocent and released, or proven guilty and elevated to a higher penalty. But the discussion of whether the treatment of the prisoners at Camp Delta, Guantanamo Bay is right or wrong is highly subjective, and because self expression is a human right it is worth to respect every person’s view on the situation. However, the years of struggle for freedom by the prisoners in this prison camp in Cuba are all justifiable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If we look at the issue in light of utilitarianism, we will be given the two sides of the coin. The first side is that of the people who are benefited by operation of Camp Delta and many other US prison camps all over the world. In this side, the inhumane treatment of the prisoners is right because it benefits them—makes them happy. It makes them happy because they are able to champion their country and their government against people who plotted against terrorism in the United States. It makes them happy because they are doing something noble and worthwhile. It makes them happy that they are getting even with people who may have played a part in the killing of many terror victims in the 9/11 attacks and many other terror attacks around the world. If they stop operating Camp Delta and close it down, it will reverse their emotions and give them the negative perception in return. This impending feeling of sadness makes shutting down Camp Delta wrong, as the utilitarian will say.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the other hand, the situation does not make the hundreds of prisoners and their families happy. Their negative (sad) perception of the situation makes it wrong, as utilitarianism claims that whatever results in the reverse of happiness is wrong.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychological egoism agrees. It asserts that a person’s ultimate aim is one’s own welfare. It may appear that psychological egoism speaks about selfishness. The theory says that in fact people are always thinking about their own means and ends all the time. This can be seen with the Guantanamo prison case in hand clearly. In the Guantanamo Bay camp, self welfare was always on cue. Many situations in many news reports and coverage insist on the truth behind this theory in Camp Delta, and egoism was practiced by the authorities and the prisoners alike. Every guard, prisoner, officer, and all others act according to what will benefit themselves and their welfare more. While military personnel may be there for the service of the country, the government, and the countrymen that they are representing, it can also be claimed safely that they are there for the benefits that being a military person gives them and their family. The prisoners may say that they are innocent because they are really innocent, or because they fear that they will be killed if they say something or establish a connection with terrorism. Likewise, the real terrorists may admit what they know and give information for hopes of being freed or being treated more humanely. All of them are acting towards what they think will result in a more positive state for themselves. For instance, the suicide attempt of some prisoners is a result of their desire for a better state. They feel that they are in such a bad situation in the Guantanamo camp that death, be it self-inflicted, is the way out for them to achieve a better life than what they are receiving in prison. Reports saying that prisoners who cooperate and state information about terrorism are given special rights to live communally though under strict control are another reflection: prisoners may be revealing information to receive the privilege. The guards are in turn giving the privilege to encourage the prisoners to speak up, and because they want the information. There were also cases that have been reported where prisoners are given cups for good manners and cooperation, but many prisoners used these cups to throw urine or stool to guards; guards were quick in disciplining these prisoners in return. (Camp Delta: Guantanamo Bay, 2004) In light of psychological egoism, the action and reaction of both the guards and prisoners were theoretically correct as they aim for the welfare of themselves. The prisoners feel maligned, and they wanted to get even. They do this by throwing the cup of their waste to the guards. In return, the guards feel maligned too and will take an action to take control over the prisoners and their action, be it physical or psychological abuse. A matter of pride, and they are all results of one’s desire to save his own welfare. In this light, the action-reaction chain ongoing at Guantanamo are all legitimate and justifiable. So in totality, can the treatment of the detainees at Camp Delta be concluded as inhumane? Are they really not exercising human rights there at Guantanamo Bay? Again, at first thought, yes and no. The answer depends on who is answering the question. A person who values national security and justice for terrorism victims more will rejoice over events at Guantanamo Bay. On the other hand, a person who values parity and human rights more will most likely be moved by the events at Camp Delta and be dismayed. However, two philosophical theories assert that what is happening out there in Camp Delta, Guantanamo Bay is wrong and worth one’s dismay. Kantian deontology states that right and wrong is determined by action, so an action is right or wrong regardless of its consequences. The ends do not and cannot justify the means. In a scenario or situation, an assessment of the situation itself is needed to know if it is right or wrong, and even if it made for the positive end if it is wrong it remains wrong. Likewise, a right move despite the negative end still remains right. In the case of treating the Guantanamo prisoners without regard for human rights, it should be assessed if the treatment is right. Ethically speaking, it is wrong because it violates and gives no regard to human rights. Sure, the treatment of these prisoners may lead to useful information about terror attacks and may help combat terrorism altogether. Sure it may promote world peace. Sure it will bring justice to terrorism victims. But all these do not matter—the violation of human rights is ethically wrong.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In light of virtue ethics, Camp Delta is treating its prisoners inhumanely. The government and its guards set aside patience and humility and hurt people without concrete evidences that these people have anything to do with the terror plots and attacks. The concern for security and to aid the nation’s injured pride for having been targeted by many successful terrorist attacks overshadowed the value of the human person, and that of brotherhood.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Utilitarianism states that the events at Camp Delta in Guantanamo Bay Cuba is right and wrong depending on which side of the fence a person is in, and if the events make him happy or not. Psychological egoism seconds this, as a person values himself and aims to protect his welfare. On the contrary, Kantian deontology and virtue ethics state that the prisoners at Camp Delta are indeed being maltreated because, primarily, the action itself is wrong and despite the arguments on expected positive results it is still wrong. Second, the actions against the prisoners act against established virtues. But philosophy and theories aside, ethics dictate that prisoners be treated with respect and be given due process. If the authorities can do this, the majority will be happy, egoism takes its course positively, actions will be deemed proper, and virtues will not be violated—and there will be no argument about human rights violations at Guantanamo, or anywhere else, ever. References: Camp Delta: Guantanamo Bay. 2004. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/09/16/60II/main573616.shtml Medrano, M. 2006. Supreme Court Rejects Appeal of Guantanamo Bay Detainees. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from http://abcnews.go.com/US/LegalCenter/story?id=1851981&page=1 Sources: Rights pledge for Guantanamo detainees. 2006. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from http://edition.cnn.com/2006/LAW/07/11/guantanamo.geneva/index.html

Abolitionism and the Uplift Movement

Justin Schenck March 7, 2013 Abolitionism Prof. Price The Uplift Movement and Origins of the â€Å"Black† Church In the late 18th century after the end of the revolution many new opportunities and hopefully thinking caused African Americans to start fighting for equality through the Uplift movement. This was an era where the Great Awakening and Enlightenment were becoming much more popular nationwide. Secret abolition societies and organizations were sprouting up all across the new Republic.These free thinkers and new anti-slavery organizations called for the need of a place to gather without racial discrimination and where the members could feel comfortable. I believe that the solution for this problem was the development of African American churches where racial segregation was not present and the black community along with white activist could gather comfortably for worship, opportunity, social/scholastic education, and held as a place for various activist meetings.The firs t of the churches was founded by two former slaves, Richard Allen and Absalom Jones. The African Methodist Episcopal Church was established in 1792. These churches created many leaders in the fight for racial equality and the abolishment of slavery. The churches were open to both free blacks and slaves. White slave owners would bring their slaves to church with them and justified slavery by saying that the church is teaching them Christianity even though they experienced very little access to a quality service.These new â€Å"black† churches gave African Americans the chance to decipher the bible in their own way and spiritual traditions which have carried on still to this day. Along with these new traditions created leadership roles in the church which were nonexistent in the mainstream churches. Not only were these churches a place for comfortable worship but also served as a â€Å"headquarters† for meetings among the anti-slavery and racial equality groups. Without these places for opportunities like jobs, petition rives, activist meetings, and schools the racial discrimination wouldn’t have gotten any better any faster. The schools created the knowledge to understand how to make it as a free person in the white society. Freed blacks were becoming much more literate which helped them learn how to fight for equality along with the religious side of equal rights for all men. Of course there were struggles along the way. The churches suffered violence from white denominations but the â€Å"black† churches would not fail under strong leadership.These preachers encouraged economic growth through community member’s donations and drives. This economic growth funded the schools and literacy programs. Also, Black leaders began to focus on politics and setting political goals. This was a time of growth all across the board and was the foundation of building a strong community, economic growth, and possibly most of all creating oppor tunity for leadership that had not been seen before.

Answer those question about dance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Answer those question about dance - Essay Example Creative movements would work for children under twelve years of age who are learning and discovering their strengths while improvision can be used in teens and adults who are aware of their interests. The specialist should expect the dancers to be more fit, better concentration and sensory awareness. Question 2: The dancer, choreographer and the audience member are all equal parties in the event since they all complement each other. This is because the choreographer demonstrates certain traits that the dancer learns through continuous training, in order to improve his performance. In a live performance, the dancer performs to the audience, which will interpret, understand the dancer’s message and comment on the performance through acclamation. Therefore, they are all important to each other. Question 3: Court ballet originated form the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century. Romantic ballet was a ballet dance that featured female dancers that sensually moved their bodies. Classical ballet was the traditional form of ballet that featured Enrico Cocchetti as a great dancer. Neo-classical ballet was a modernised form of classical ballet in which George Balanchine thrived. He was the initiator of contemporary ballet that permitted a greater range of movements than the neo-classical ballet. Question 4: Modern dance started in the early 1900s in response to ballet, which was majorly used in concerts. It involved a wide range of styles as compared to ballet. There were many styles such as those initiated by Graham and Horton. The mid-century was characterised by combining modern dance and ballet elements. There was a lot of improvisation and performance art incorporation. It is different today form the jazz, ballet and tap dance in that it allows a lot of individualistic ideas and incorporated style and fashion. Question 5: The social dances in the 1980s featured dances

The DENMARK LEADERSHIP Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The DENMARK LEADERSHIP - Research Paper Example The conservative elements are evident in its state structure and the government relations. Denmark is Parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy with the Queen as a head of the state. Leadership of Denmark is conservative as it is based on century old principles of government and inner state relations. They include a freely elected parliament, not all of the same party, a tolerant respect for opposition and for rules of the game under constitutional laws, an independent judiciary, a public service free from bias, an unrestricted press, no torture, no arbitrary imprisonment, no state seizure of property, no restraints on public meetings or on the dissemination of news. They are ideals laid up in a parliamentary heaven but they provide a pattern for the imperfect world of would-be democratic societies, and the papers printed in this volume should be seen as a preliminary attempt to assess the likely success or failure of states whose governments have begun to introduce reform or are faced with the task of maintaining those already in place (Docalavich 43). Liberal elements of its leadership are found in its international politics and approval of euro as a national currency. Thus, conservatism still dominates its politics. The Danish executive consists of a wide variety of political and administrative institutions. The principle of departmentalism stands in direct contrast to that of collegiality, yet it affects the behaviour of all Cabinet members apart from the Prime Minister. Both legally and politically, there are centrifugal pressures within the Cabinet system, which drive Ministers apart from each other and which make the Prime Ministers coordinating role as well as his or her leading and guiding role more difficult. Legally, Ministers are responsible for the actions of their own departments. The principle of individual ministerial

Capital Budgetting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Capital Budgetting - Research Paper Example This topic has various fields such as capital budgeting which acts as an instrument in the monetary and fiscal policy. The two policies are necessary in improving net worth in the economy of a country in order to enhance development. This is mainly achieved through the reliance of debts rather than from other convectional sources such as tax. Capital budgeting is introduced in the economy so as to reduce deficit caused when expenditure exceeds revenue. In addition, capital budgeting is also primarily concerned with investment in the economy within long-term assets. These assets can either be tangible items such as equipment and property or intangible such as technology, trademarks and patents. However, the key challenge in capital budgeting is defining appropriate balances between current and capital expenditure. It is, therefore, important to enhance proper capital budgeting in order to reduce debts. This paper work analyzes a comprehensive research on capital budgeting in the econo my. This is in an effort to identify some aspects of corporate practices, which are consistent with capital budgeting policies and decisions. Capital budgeting decisions Capital budgeting decisions is highly applicable in the economy to maximize market values of firms to their shareholders. The decisions, therefore, have greater and long range impacts on the performance of firms. This is because the nature of the capital budgeting decision can either cause success or failure of a firm in the economy framework. According to financial theory by Keynes, capital budgeting decisions revolve around assets values. This is by ensuring value of assets in the entire economy is equivalent to the discounted values of the expected future cash flow (Graham & Harvey, 2002). Net present value (NPV) vs. Internal Rate of Return (IRR) These are two capital budgeting decision measures that are used to evaluate the nature of the product market before undertaking investment project. This means that firms contemplating investment in the capital market need to embrace net present value (NPV) rule in order to know when to undertake projects. According to this rule, a firm is only required to undertake capital investment project when NPV is either zero or positive. However, current survey shows that many firms across the world use internal rate of return (IRR) as a primary criterion of evaluating capital investment projects (Gervais, 2009). According to a survey that was conducted in 2000 among large companies in the world, 10 percent of them relied on NPV as a primary source of business evaluation while more that 50 percent relied on internal rate of return. Although the two methods have a similarity in evaluating the nature of the market, they exhibit critical difference in that IRR is expressed in ratio form while NPV measures the value added in dollar. However, Dayananda indicates that research shows that most of the companies and firms across the globe uses internal rate of return and net present value for their capital budgeting techniques. In addition, large firms record high rate of using NPV than small companies. This is because they require more accurate measure to prevent incurring higher losses because they engage in paramount investment (Dayananda, 2002). In addition, some surveys show that NPV is also like to be used by firms with high leverage than IRR contrary to firms with a reduced debt

State capitol Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

State capitol - Essay Example it was precisely constructed in the year 1619 and was serving as the Virginia House of Burgesses and since then has been in place in its very own state reflecting its grandeur and poise in terms of the rich American political history that the country enjoys. The formal proceedings and handover of the building which led it to becoming the Capitol took place in 1788 (Spears, 2012, p. 86) under the then Governor Thomas Jefferson who would go on to become the President of United States of America. Through the different phases the building has seen numerous developments and improvements as the field of architecture and developmental works saw progress. Numbers of stories have been added to the building making it more accommodating and larger in its existence through timely modifications and additions. Underground constructions have been established which have enabled accommodating and adjusting more set of individuals and visitors in its parking areas and other surrounding localities. Defined as a model pattern based on the cubic architecture and structural design (Giordano, 2012,p. 130), it is considered novel on the account of political standing, the design so followed and the richness in terms of the architectural richness that it possesses within itself beholding the rich history spanning over more than two decades. Another significant existence of the building is the fact that it has been crafted through the ideas of the French professional craftsman who worked on it and designed it on the request and instructions of the then governor Thomas Jefferson. Owing to its importance in the context of the overall political and American civil life society, the place is a center of attention and a central hub towards the visitors from the various states within United States of America and to those who travel United States of America and have some level of affiliation and interest in

Self assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Self assessment - Essay Example responsible.) In addition, she has become even more mature due to her experiences away from home like her trips to Mexico and Rome. (†¦ we can.) I, personally, respect how she takes the initiative when she is passionate about something, for example the revival of the Classics Club, and how she already knows what she wants in life at this age. (She has an†¦. ) (†¦Renaissance study. A deeper level of this study plays an important role.) Our daughter is interested in Ancient History, Archaeology and Classic Studies so it is necessary that she becomes part of an institution which can help cultivate this interest. (†¦ advantage.) We do not think a denial will discourage our daughter. Helena has proved that she is a determined individual when in the pursuit of her goals. She faced a lot of difficulty when she tried to re-open the Classics Club and there also challenges living away from home but she faced these head-on. She is a resilient young woman so we know she can handle denial gracefully. †¦. (came voluntarily.) It is nice to see her continuous devotion to her passions – writing and humanities. It is also good that even with all the technology around her, Helena has not let these advances deter her from her

Response Paper Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Response Paper - Article Example They emphasized the point that capstone achievement of the doctoral program is more justified as a goal than mere reporting the research literature. While Maxwell tended to accuse Boote and Beile’s approach as ‘foundationalism’ (Boote & Beile, 2006, p. 33), Maxwell himself ironically appeared -as it is revealed through the argumentation of the authors- to the adamant foundationalist who, being deviated from the generative purpose of education, is more inclined to establish the value of knowledge on some normative foundations and â€Å"conceptual framework[s] that only discusses relevant literature† (Boote & Beile, 2006, p. 32). However, it is also true that Boote and Beile have failed, to some extent, to understand Maxwell’s counter argument behind the division between the dissertation literature review and research literature review. Indeed Boote and Beile’s flat allegation that Maxwell advocates, â€Å"Candidates need not present a thorough analysis and synthesis of the scholarship and research† (Boote & Beile, 2006, p. 32) can be refuted on the point that Maxwell preserves, though flawed, the right of performing an independent and thorough analysis in the literature review only for the author of the research paper. Here he is more concerned with the educational value of dissertation. Obviously, adherence to the non-generative conceptual frameworks of doctoral engenders the hollow ritualistic aspects of the highest educational programs. Therefore, Boote and Beile have taken the safest route to prevent such undesired result of reviewing the existing literatures in a particular field by granting the scholar’s independence within the conceptual frameworks of dissertation literature review and, at the same time, defying Maxwell’s approach to take prior literatures as â€Å"exemplar for the dissertation† (Boote & Beile, 2006, p. 33). In

Designing a system to support the collection of environmental data in Essay

Designing a system to support the collection of environmental data in the country of Wonderland (imaginary) - Essay Example 66). However, many countries do not have certified records that they can rely on; Wonderland is no exception. The country needs to establish a centralized system that can be used by all its divisions. Wonderland already has three departments that collect environmental data actively; the Ministry of Defense (MoD), Ministry of the Environment (MoE), and the Ministry of Land (MoL). These ministries collect similar data independently, and have their own systems of managing them. It would make more sense for the government to consolidate the data into one system so that it can be shared not only between them, but also with other departments; both public and private. The government of Wonderland has the option of upgrading one of the existing systems to accommodate new requirements, or developing a new system. To do this, the government could choose to use its resources to develop the system, outsource the developers, or go for an off-the shelf system. Whichever path the government chooses to follow, care must be taken to ensure that the resultant system meets all, or most, of the requirements laid down. The cheapest development method would involve the use of government resources to develop a new system from scratch. This would cut down the cost of production by eliminating expenses such as those that would be incurred in hiring development experts. It is, however, crucial to note that the government could still have to outsource some experts if it does not have experts who can handle all sections of the project. Outsourcing development firms to deliver the project is another option for Wonderland. While this could be more expensive than using local resources, it guarantees delivery of an efficient, quality system that meets most, if not all requirements. This is because software development firms have all the resources required to develop systems; human, technical, and material. Whereas this could be expensive, it stands the best chance to provide low

2 questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

2 questions - Assignment Example Furthermore, if this business is new or small, then this method is very unsuitable. In choosing maxmin criterion, the management will be looking at the worst possible situation in all the options and then adopting the option that provides the least bad results; that is, they adopts the option that optimizes the least profits. As already discussed, this criterion will not be attractive to this particular company if its owners are risk averse decision makers because the method is based on excessive watchfulness. However, while adopting Laplace method, the management should be sure that they are not conversant of chances of different conditions and have no reason to decide otherwise. From the calculations, the most central location is B; therefore, the most frequented department (4) should be placed there. The department that makes more trips to department 4 is department 2, therefore should be placed at the locations closest, for instance A, which is 40 yards from A. Second priority should be offered to department 1, which makes 80 trips to department 4. This department should be placed at location C, which is 40 yards from location B. Automatically, the last department, which is 3, will be located at location D, which is the most distant location at 50 yards from department D’s location (Stevenson, 2008). Following the revised trips schedule, minimizing travel costs will be best when the departments are placed as described below. The highest number of trips are made to department 4, therefore, it should be placed at the most central location. Therefore, taking the distances indicated in part a, department 4 should be placed at location B, which is 40 yards from location A; 40 yards from location C; and 50 yards from location D. However, priority should be given to department 3, which does 60 trips to department 4. Department 3 should be placed at either location C, then department 2, which makes 50 trips to

Memory Essay Example for Free

Memory Essay 1. What is primary memory? What are the characteristics of primary memory? It has long been noted that it is possible to hold some information in mind for a brief period of time. In the late 1950s, researchers began to think that such brief memories might be supported by the primary memory. The three characteristics of primary memory are: forgetting (caused by both interference and decay); the format in which the information is coded (in terms of sound, visual appearance, and meaning); and the amount of information that can be held, or capacity (which depends on the type of information). Much (but not all) of the forgetting from primary memory occurs due to interference. Proactive interference occurs when older learning interferes with new learning. In retroactive interference, later learning interferes with earlier learning.   It appears that material can be coded in primary memory in at least three ways: visuospatially, acoustically (in terms of sound), and semantically (in terms of meaning). There is also evidence for a primary memory component that can store tactile memories—that is, how things feel on the skin—but not much research has been directed toward that representation (Harris, Miniussi, Harris, Diamond, 2002; Romo Salinas, 2003). Around the turn of the 20th century, researchers began to use the digit span task to measure the capacity of primary memory. 2. What is the process of memory from perception to retrieval? What happens when the process is compromised? The perception of primary memory occurs in manifold ways. Much of it consists of our knowledge of what words mean, about the ways they are related to one another and the rules of communication and thinking. This kind of memory, which makes use of language possible, is semantic memory; while primary memory can also consist of episodic memory which is organized with respect to when certain events happened in our lives. It is a record of what happened to us and does not lend itself to drawing of inferences. The storing of primary memory occurs in various ways. One of them is organizing and arranging the input so that it fits into existing long-term memory categories, grouping in some logical memory, or arranging in some other way that makes â€Å"sense†. The organizational encoding may be inherent in the input itself or it may be supplied by individuals as they learn and remember new things. Imagery also plays an important role in storing of information into memory. One explanation for the importance of stimulus imagery in learning and storing information to memory, is that a concrete stimulus (one, for which, imagery is readily evoked in mind) provides a conceptual peg on which responses can be hung. During encoding, the to-be-remembered information, especially if it is a complex life event or something you have read, is modified. Certain details are accentuated, the material me be simplified; which is called constructive processes. One important constructive process is encoding only the gist or meaning of complex information such as what we have read in a newspaper, magazine, or book. 3. Is it possible for memory retrieval to be unreliable? Why or why not? What factors may affect the reliability of ones memory? Successful retrieval of a memory depends largely on the cues available at the time of retrieval. But sometimes, when cues will not help; the memory is simply lost. The idea that memories simply fade away with time corresponds to our everyday experience, but it is difficult to prove. It is more certain that new things you learn can interfere with things that you already know, thereby causing forgetting. The idea that memories simply fade away with time corresponds to our everyday experience, but it is difficult to prove. It is more certain that new things you learn can interfere with things that you already know, thereby causing forgetting. Forgetting can occur because (a) you don’t have the right cue for retrieval, (b) the association between the cue and the target memory is compromised in some way, or (c) the target memory itself is lost. There is some evidence supporting each mechanism. We briefly consider the possibility that some memories are never lost.

The Socio Economic Forces Tourism Essay

The Socio Economic Forces Tourism Essay The tourism industry is a major contributor to the gross state product of many countries Reige and Perry, 2000 and in the last 50 years, tourism has developed into one of the worlds most powerful, yet provocative, socio-economic forces (Sharpley and Telfer 2008). Travel Tourism industry has become one of the worlds most important and fastest growing economic sectors, generating quality jobs and substantial wealth for economies around the globe (WTTC, 2007). The recent global recession has not caused the tourism industry to grind to a complete halt, and the World Tourism Barometer indicated that the recession only caused a 4% decline in global tourism from 2008-2010 (UNWTO, 2011b) and now it is expected to grow again. WTTC President and CEO, David Scowsill (2011) says Over the next ten years, its total contribution to GDP will rise by 4.2% per annum to US$9.2 trillion, bringing with it 65 million new jobs, but for that growth to be achievable and sustainable, governments must work to gether with the industry towards smarter policies and legislation that will help Travel Tourism to thrive. In Third world countries, governments encourage tourism investment because of the assumption that it will contribute to economic development of their countries (Hall, 1995). Third world nations and developing nations always seeks the potential benefits of tourism such as increased income, foreign exchange, employments and economic diversification (Sharpley and Telfer, 2008). According to Ferguson (2007) The tourism industry directly provides around 3 per cent of global employment, or 192 million jobs the equivalent to one in every twelve jobs in the formal sector. As with other industrial sectors and fields of academic study, tourism has also developed over the decades and has been influenced by a multitude of internal and external factors. It is not surprising that many aspects of tourism are totally different than they used to be before because of the vast rate of technolog ical change along with social, economic and environmental changes. Bangladesh is one of the worlds most densely populated countries, with its people packed into a delta of rivers that empties into the Bay of Bengal [BBC] (2011). Its implementing its developing plans for a long time. They are not only trying to secure their economic growth but also trying to improve their social living standards. In Bangladesh, tourism was almost non-existent at the countrys independence from Pakistan in 1971. More recently tourism has seen as a means of the contributing to their attainment. Tourism contributes 4.8 % to Bangladeshs Gross Domestic Products (GDP) and employs over 1509100 which contribute 1.9% of direct employments (WTTC, 2011). According to Bhatia (1986 in Jenkins and Tosun, 1998), many countries in the third world do not know the importance of tourism and the impacts that it can have, and Bangladesh is one of those countries. Essentially Jenkins and Tosun (1998) argue that, tourism development took place in most of the places of this world as an unpla nned activity (p 102). Like sustainable development sounds attractive (Butler, 1992: 64), the phrase of sustainable tourism accepted immediately by this country even the meaning of this term is not understood fully. Though sustainable tourism is the in thing across the world, Bangladesh, in spite of being endowed with natures bounties and beauty, still struggles with the concept (Mahmud, 2010). Several destinations in Bangladesh such as Chittagong hill tracts, the Sundarbans, Saint Martin coral island, Nijhum Island, Srimanagol Lawachera rain forest, Tangua Hoar and Coxs Bazar, which could be used as sustainable tourist spots (Mahmud, 2010). Coxs Bazar is the tourist capital of Bangladesh. By popular choice, Coxs Bazar has recently been ranked as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World'(Zamir, 2009), located conveniently on the east-west air-corridor making it a gateway to the Far East. It is endowed with resources and the potential for a tourism industry. In the southern edge of the country has a 125 km (77.6 miles) long beach of soft silvery sand, the worlds longest (Qadir, 2003) and a chain of hills that run parallel to the sea for almost the entire length, towering cliffs, colourful, ancient pagodas and Hindu temples (Anonymous, 2007), in a Riviera-like setting with crescent-shaped low hills overlooking the Bay of Bengal, and most visited tourist destinations in Bangladesh. The range of the hills covered in luxurious green groves is precious locations for tourists. Coxs Bazar is located at the head of this terrain. Coxs Bazar is also known as Panowa, literature meaning yellow flower. Palonkee was its other name. The daughter of the sea Bangladesh is a beautiful surprise for the tourist. Since the tourism is reported as a relatively easy way to earn foreign exchange, many countries are eager to enter international markets as fast as they can (Jafari, 1974) and Bangladesh is one of them. According to Jafari (1974), tourists and news media of a developed countries come to be a kind of promotional agents for a developing country or for a under developing country. Though Hasan in his book development tourism in Bangladesh blames the international news media for representing a wrong appearance of the country and news media carefully avoid telling the world of the brighter side of Bangladesh than the rough side of it (Khairuzzaman, 2008) still there are some positive approaches from the international media. Lonely planet is one of them. The world leader in publishing travel guides and guidebooks Lonely planet recommended Bangladesh as one of the top ten interesting travel destination in 2009 (Thoms en, 2009). This UK based publication Bradt Travel guide is known as a pioneer in tackling unusual destinations, for championing the causes of sustainable travel and for the high quality of writing (Thomsen, 2009). The first guide on Bangladesh published in 2009 and the back cover text states: Bangladesh has a reputation for being poor and beset by flooding, but this republic of rivers rewards those willing to look beyond the headlines. Leave luxuries behind and embark on the richest of travel experiences among some of the sub-continents friendliest people (Thomsen, 2009). This kind of positive focus on Bangladesh is not possible to buy for money. Lack of consistent strategy on cooperation, appropriate knowledge and sustainability; are the great barrier to a positive development of Bangladesh tourism sector. Environmental resources are an important asset not only in Coxs Bazar but to other tourism destinations in all other third world countries. The tourism in Bangladesh is especially popular due to its coastal areas of Coxs Bazar. If environmental resources are important economic assets in Bangladesh, the immediate action that need is that of sustainable utilisation of resources to benefit for present and future generations (Mbaiwa, 2005). It is well established that the presence of tourism in destination always brings with it environmental, socio-culture and economic benefit and this is why it is an effective development tool in any under developing countries and in the case of Bangladesh, A sustainable tourism strategy will have a major positive impact (Thomsen, 2009). When carrying out a broad research on any substance, it is essential to become acquainted with contextual of that topic, by using relevant literatures. For this dissertation, it is most significant to obtain information in a number of different sources. Academic books, journals, newspapers, where available, will be used in the gathering of information for this dissertation. Here in this project, I will outline the history of sustainable tourism development first which will provide the context of how it is developing and will answer either it exists in the Bangladesh, particularly in Coxs bazar. In order to gain this knowledge I will look at different publications related to research issue will be collected from academic books, daily newspaper, projects, related archives and tremendously up to date journals. For this purpose it will be extremely useful to look at relevant internet websites such as the websites of different ministry of Bangladesh and tourism industry based websites. In ternet websites will be an important source to fill in the gap by providing useful information where books and periodicals are not so unequivocal. 2.0: Literature review All tourism includes some travel but not all travel is tourism (Page, 2007). Tourism used to be recognised as an activity undertaken by those who travelled away from home for holidays, to visit relatives or to carry out professional business, in the past. Tourism is a composite of activities, services and industries that deliver a travel experience: transportation, accommodations, eating and drinking establishments, shops entertainment, activity facilities and other hospitality services available for individuals and groups that are travelling away from home (Goeldner and Ritchie, 2009). Therefore it encompasses a wide variety of purposes. The officially accepted definition by UNWTO (1993) is: Tourism comprises the activities of person travelling to and staying places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, businesses and other purposes. This definition challenges the commonly held perception that tourism is purely concerned with recreation and having fun (Holden, 2008). But according to Gunn (1994) the best working definition of tourism is that of by Mathieson and Wall (1982 in Gunn, 1994): Tourism is the temporary movement of people to destinations outsides their normal places of work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in those destinations, and the facilities created to cater to their needs. At the present time, tourism is even more far reaching with wider implications. Specialists have illustrious between mass tourism, which involves those features just mentioned, and alternative tourism, which can include cultural, educational, social, environmental, agricultural and political tourism (Wearing and Neil, 2009). Tourism promotes better cross culture understanding. For any third world and developing countries, tourism is seen as an important tool of their regional development, culture, environmental and in most cases; the tourism portfolio is attached to Economy. This provides us with an initi al insight into the impact of tourism within all countries it has. In addition to social, political and economic concerns, tourism has become a vastly important and global feature of environmental argument. Tourism development which consistently ignores environmental concerns is unlikely to remain viable in the longer term (Pigram, 1990). High volume of tourism can cause environmental including water, air and noise pollution which are extremely destructive to a locations sustainable well-being. It is as a significance of the growing awareness of the harmful effect that tourism has on the environment, as well as a general heightened understanding of how global warming is affecting our planet, that tourism has been given an environmental focus. Indeed, sustainable tourism is now a widely known outlet of tourism, with the state of the environment being given more and more consideration. The term Sustainable Tourism has been introduced in the context of wider debate about environmental sustainability and logically implies a form and level of tourism whi ch maintains a total stock of natural resources (Sinclair, 1998). The growing awareness of environmental damage in this modern technological world is the reason to address this term. Getz (1986) says that when tourism planning was first developed in the 1960s, the disciplines main focus came, almost totally from the perspective of maximizing economic growth (p. 21). Over the decades, the focus has shifted and is now, more sensitive to non-economic issues (p. 32). Murphy (1985) argues that it is the responsibility of the tourism industry to, develop and protect its attractions, whether they are natural or man-made, and become a hospitality industry to make visitor experiences as enjoyable as possible (p. 10). Though it is argued that too much emphasis is placed on relatively short term economic impacts at the cost of considering the long term social and environmental impacts of tourism, thereby encourages in a better awareness of the problems that the industry creates (Holloway et al ., 2009). The importance of sustainable development is to carry growing successes into the future in such a way that future generations are not troubled (Pearce et al., 1990). Sustainability, sustainable tourism and sustainable development are all well-established terms (Liu, 2003). There are two components in the definition of sustainable development. The meaning of development and the condition necessary for sustainability are those two components (Miltin, 1992). Croall (1995) compares sustainability to the link between development and conservation, which should not conflict to each other. According to Bartelmus (1986 in Tosun, 2001), development implies a process that makes an effort to improve the living conditions of people. To meet human needs and wants is the main objective of development (WCED, 1987) which involves wider apprehensions with the quality of life (Pearce et al., 1990). When applied to tourism, as Godfrey (1996 in Gunn, 1994)) points out the concept of sustainable development relates to a form of environmentally friendly tourism. Aside, Rees (Gunn, 1994 p.85) define sustainable tourism development as a positive socio-economic change tha t does not undermine the cultural, ecological and social systems upon which local communities and societies are depended. The concept of sustainability first appeared on the public sense in the report by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. The outline of sustainable development is that the economic growth and the environmental conservation are not only friendly but they are partners and one cannot survive without than other. The Brundtland Commission Report defines sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987). The Commission highlighted that sustainable development is not a fixed national agreement, but an active process of changes which are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations (WCED, 1987: 46). A general weakness in the concept of the sustainable tourism development is that its principles and objectives have tended to manifest themselves in sets of guidelines that based on managing the limits of acc eptable environmental and social change, which is unable to account for the almost infinite diversity of tourism development contexts (Sharpley and Telfer, 2008). In a research Liu (2003) found that sustainability is praised by Bramwell and Lane (1993 in Liu, 2003) and according to them it is a positive approach intended to reduce the tensions and friction created by the complex interactions between the tourism industry, tourists, environment and the host communities to maintain the long term capacity and quality of both natural and human resources. Miles of golden sands, towering cliffs, surfing waves, rare conch shells, colourful Pagodas, Buddhist Temples and delightful sea-food all this makes what Coxs Bazar is today , the tourist capital of Bangladesh (NTO). Coxs Bazar is one of the most attractive tourist spots, not only in the Bangladesh but also in the world. The warm, shark free waters are good for bathing and swimming while the sandy beaches offer opportunities for sun-bathing (NTO). The tourist capital of Bangladesh includes conch shell market, tribal handicraft, and salt and prawn cultivation. According to a census of aquatic birds, a total of 15933 birds of 52 species have been spotted in Coxs Bazar (The Daily Star, 2009) can be seen as other attraction. Aggmeda Khyang, a Buddhist monastery at the hills, Himchari picnic spot, just about 8 km from Coxs Bazar, Innani Beach 32 km away from the city, is one of the most spectacular sea beaches in Bangladesh which is very close to the worlds longest sandy beach in Coxs B azaar and it is situated within the Inani protected forest; Sonadia island with very little human visitation, Teknaf peninsula, some 80 km from town and picturesque St. Martin Island to the south at 13 km distance from mainland are the around attraction of Coxs Bazar (Ahammed, 2010). All these places are located around Coxs Bazar and easily accessible by road and water sides what makes this place hub of tourism. As an international destination, Bangladesh has a mixed image. Tourists from abroad perceive a negative awareness of Bangladesh from news media. People from outside perceive as place where the population is living in poverty, corruption and in natural disasters. Though the new seven natural wonders search 2009 have made the country attractive for tourism and is also charted as one of the top ten interesting destinations by new travel books (Quader, 2010). Bangladesh is still one of the countries in South Asia with the fewest arrivals and the lowest revenue earned from the tourism industry. WTTC (2011) predicts that the contribution from travel and tourism will increase 6.3% per annum till 2021. According to Bari (FE, 2010), At present, around 0.50 million international tourists visit Bangladesh each year, It employs one million people. Most of the tourists visited the country for business purpose, and their stay in the country was brief as they had not been offered to explore the hil ls, seas and forests of the country brimming with natural beauty (Mahmud, 2010). The only cause for this is the lack of awareness and proper arrangements. Though the economic contribution of tourism and the share of Coxs Bazar to the national economy are not studied with reliable statistics (Ahammed, 2010) still the tourism industry leaders said in Financial Express (FE, 2010) that Bangladesh can earn US$2.0 billion in annual revenue from the tourism sector if it can attract two million international tourists. According to the general manager of Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation, revenue earning from the tourism sector is experiencing a downward trend and the revenue from tourism sector was approximately  £51 million in 2008, which came down to  £47 million in 2009. Till June 2010, the revenue was  £26 million (FE, 2010). Tourism in Bangladesh is managed by Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation under the Ministry of Civil Aviation and tourism. There is no doubt that tourism is an effective development tool, helps economy to generate revenue, country gets benefited as well as the private sector and local community, Consciousness on preservation of nature and protection of environment tends to increase. Though Coxs Bazar is easily accessible by road, still there is no rail links in this city. The government spending huge amount of money to get Coxs Bazar rail linked within 2 years. Governments infrastructure development planning includes the work on the upgraded submarine cable connection of Coxs Bazar Landing Station to increase the bandwidth (Unb, 2011). Development of major infrastructure to serve resorts should be coordinated to meet the demands of the industry with boarder economic and social needs (Brohman, 1996). The presence of tourism in any destination always brings environmental, socio- culture and economic impacts. Less developed destinations like Coxs Bazar are more susceptible. Development of tourism in Coxs bazar brings external money flow which drives the living standard of the locals to higher level. Development of tourism in Coxs Bazar on a long-term basis is to give due importance to the above impacts for its sustainability. It needs a long term planning, continuous development work, avoid the negative impacts and investment timing have to be predetermined (Quader, 2010). The current growth in tourist numbers to Coxs bazar has led to the recognition that consideration needs to be given to a sustainable tourism development strategy if the site is to be maintained for future generations. 3.0 Aims and objectives In undertaking this investigation, this dissertation has number of aims and objectives. As sustainable tourism is a very well established term in modern tourism industry due to a heightened environmental awareness, it is important to understand how it functions and whom it targets. The goal of environmentally sustainability is a maximum level of desired outcome such as economic profit, quality of life what will maintain in a steady way, subject to constraints imposed by environment. Basis on this concept it can be said that environmentally sustainable tourism implies a key importance on maintaining a certain level of environmental quality. This is highlighting that, a sustainable environment and a viable tourism industry are essential elements to make an environmentally sustainable tourism (Johnston Tyrrell, 2007). In order to do understand the term and the function of environmentally sustainable tourism, it will first be necessary to outline the basics of the tourism industry in le ss developed country like Bangladesh and how it has changed over the years. By doing this it will be possible to better understand how the sustainable tourism industry fits into Coxs Bazar. 3.1: Aims The core aim of the social and economic perspectives of tourism is to inspire more international and domestic tourists to promote the growth of tourist value which focus on creating employment, achieving revenue, developing local engagement (Gilmore et al., 2007) and enable some members of the population to move from the informal sector to higher paid jobs in the formal sector (Sinclair, 1998). The environmental aim is often conflict between the economic and social perceptions which is to protect and to conserve both culture and the environment (Gilmore et al., 2007). The host population is itself a part of the tourism product. The rapid growth of tourism in any less developed countries and destinations raises questions of sustainable tourism development, particularly the access and economic benefits to local economies. For this dissertation, it is most important to know the various facets of the relationship between host population and tourism industry of Coxs Bazar of Bangladesh. T he locals are subjects to be viewed and interacted with, or settings for tourist activities, and their attitudes and behaviour constitute the hospitality resource of a destination (Smith, 1994). According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (1993), tourism is sustainable when it improves the quality of life of the host community; provides a high quality of experience for the visitor; and maintains the quality of the environment on which both the host community and the visitor depend. Coxs Bazar have limited opportunities and resources for agriculture or industrial development and are turning to tourism to create the major source of economy though a huge part of population are still involved in fishing, collecting sea foods and sea products for their livelihood. Traditionally, it is a conservative society and socio-culture, economy and the quality of life is still below than national average (Ahammed, 2010). The aim of this project is to critically assess whether Coxs Bazar in Bangladesh can be developed in a sustainable way. 3.2: Objectives Finally, having completed a thorough investigation and after evaluation of the data collected will leads up to the current prevalence of the sustainable tourism in Coxs Bazar, it will then be possible to imagine how the industry may develop in future. Objectives are Æ’ËÅ" To evaluate and define sustainable tourism development in term of environment, economic and culture. Æ’ËÅ" To investigate and find the specific requirement for sustainable tourism development in Coxs Bazar. Æ’ËÅ" Critically discuss whether the people of tourism industry in Bangladesh really know the meaning of sustainable development? Æ’ËÅ" To illustrate useful conclusions and make effective recommendations on sustainable tourism development for Coxs Bazar that can be implemented by the tourism authority of Bangladesh. 4.0: Methodology and Method The following section of this dissertation shall outline the methodology and the method that shall be employed for the primary research section of this dissertation. 4.1: Methodology In tourism research there is an on-going need for statistical insights but qualitative research offers a great deal of understanding at social life from in a different way (Phillimore and Goodson, 2004). Phillimore and Goodson (2004) argue that tourism researchers are not bound to adopt a simple set of methods, and are therefore free to combine a wide range of approaches with a more sophisticated attitude to use qualitative research. This project used both primary and secondary data resources. In terms of primary data sources, this dissertation relied on the research work that I have carried out on sustainable tourism development in Coxs Bazar. Priority was given to the semi structured interviews I took in April 2011 which resulted in to develop conclusions and recommendations based on the findings that could be implemented in Coxs Bazar. In order to give concrete load to the primary research conducted this research will also contain some secondary research. Collecting data from people who are involved with the tourism industry in Bangladesh will give considerable ideas that will have been formed by looking at secondary literature. It will also provide the dissertation with a personal insight which cannot be gained from conducting qualitative research alone. 4.1.1: Primary Research From the outset, I decided that my research objectives more easily lend themselves to more qualitative forms of analysis. This study is essentially attempting to determine how a number of complex concepts impact and relate to one another. It requires the subject area to be looked at from a number of different perspectives and for links between these separate perspectives to be determined. Britten et al (1995) suggest that employing qualitative methodology allows for the researcher to, Address research questions of immediate relevance which are otherwise difficult to investigate (p. 105). Flick et al (2004) go on to point out that the use of qualitative methodology can aide in, the understanding of complex relationships rather than explanation by isolation of a single relationship, such as cause and effect' (p. 8). Sofaer (1999) further argues that this can result in, rich descriptions of phenomenaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it not only serves the desire to describe; it also helps move the enquiry towards more meaningful explanations (p. 1102). It is for these reasons that this study will approach the research objectives from a qualitative, rather than giving practical weight to quantitative, approach. 4.1.2: Secondary Research Secondary analysis has a well-established pedigree. This will provide the useful information in order to understand the background of the subject. Hakim (1982) state that, secondary data analysis is any further analysis of an existing dataset which presents interpretations, conclusions or knowledge additional to, or different from, those produced in the first report on the inquiry as a whole and its main results(p 1). Secondary data can embrace a whole range of experimental forms; it can include the data generated through systematic reviews, through documentary analysis as well as the results from government sponsored surveys (Smith, 2008). Secondary literature provides a considerable source for appreciative which is necessary when making decisions regarding any topic and placing advance theories to develop situations. 4.2: Method The first method that was considered was focus groups. MacNaghten and Myers (2004) suggest that this method is most useful for researchers who perhaps, are not entirely sure what categories, links and perspectives are relevant (p. 65). However, this method can yield data that can be difficult to understand and interpret. For an inexperienced researcher this could present a problem and could lead to data that is perhaps not as rich as it could be. I finally chose semi-structured interviews as my primary research method. Kvale (1983) states that the use of this method presents the researcher with the opportunity to, gather the life-world of the interviewee with respect to interpretation of the meaning of the described phenomena (p. 174). It is this real world experience that will give my data real depth and will hopefully help me to understand some of the complex problems faced by my respondents. Another advantage of this method is outlined by Blee and Taylor (1995) who argue that semi-structured interviews places human agency, at the centre of the movement analysis. Qualitative interviews are a window into the everyday world of activists, and they generate representations that embody the subjects voices, minimizing, at least as much as possible, the voice of the researcher (p. 96). I had hoped to be able to conduct this research in Coxs Bazar. However, it became clear to me early in my research that this was not likely to be popular. Instead, I chose to focus my research on travel agencies in the UK who offer holidays to Coxs Bazar and other parts of Bangladesh. I chose to draw my sample group from agencies located in Bangladeshi communities. Tower Hamlets, Manchester and Oldham have arguably the highest concentration of Bangladeshis in the country, so I chose to target travel agents here. As people working in the industry are answering my questionnaires, I assured them that they will remain anonymous to make them feel more confident to give honest answer. I phoned round several agencies and managed to secure interviews with 5 travel agents. A few days before the interviews, these respondents were sent an outline of my study so that they could perhaps begin to prepare their responses. This would hopefully yield richer data for me to use. These interviews were mostly conducted face to face, although two was conducted over the phone and Skype. I recorded the interviews and took extensive notes during them. I was conscious of the fact that, in semi-structured interviewing, analysis and interpretation are on-going processes (Blee and Taylor, 2002: 110). Unlike in quantitative data collection where one waits until all the data is collected before starting the analysis process, with qualitative data collection, the analysis is an on-going process. In the analysis of the data, I employed a fairly liberal interpretation of the grounded theory method. Stern (1994) suggests that this method is most helpful for researchers exploring new subject a reas or who simply want to gain a fresh perspective on a familiar situation (p. 30). The use of this method demands that the researcher constantly re-evaluates the data collected and then categorizes and codes it. I decided that my codes would be the objectives set at the start of this dissertation. I re-listened to my interviews to my interviews a number of times to find parts of the data that best met my objectives. The following section of this dissertation will present the findings from the primary research and discuss these in light of the findings from the literature search. The objectives of the study (see 3.2) were used as markers in the interviews. Although the respondents were allowed to veer off track, I always tried to bring the discussion back to the four main objectives guiding this research. Notes: I did not add references cause of the word limits. Once I finalised this work I will go through Gold proofread again.

An Online Utility Bill Payment System

An Online Utility Bill Payment System Abstract With the growing number of people who are been increasing pressured for time, online utility bill payment has become a graceful solution for the consumers with busy life styles. Through online payment of utility bills, consumers are able to save time, hassle and therefore make their lives much easier. Although online utility bill payment has become one of the fastest growing trends in the world particularly in the US, in the Sri Lanka however, the progress of households adopting to online utility bill payments is rather slothful. Thus, the primary objective of this study is to analyse the factors influencing the consumers intention to adopt an utility bill payment system in Sri Lanka alongside with the secondary objectives of identifying the awareness level on online bill payments systems, examining the most preferred utility bill payment options and models, and the degree of acceptance of online utility bill payment systems by the consumers and finally to analyse the future prospect with regards to online utility bill payments. Hence a survey was conducted among 50 physicians from four major hospitals in the Colombo city. According to the result obtained from this research, it was revealed that although in general all the respondents were somewhat aware about online utility bill payment systems, the younger respondents acquired a better knowledge about online utility bill payments than respondents from older age categories. Furthermore, all the respondents positively reacted and stated that it is important for all the utility companies to mark their online presence thus allow customers to conduct online transactions as it would be more convenience. Moreover, factors categorised under perceived risks and perceived benefits were found to have a considerable force on the consumers intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. Other factors such as services and features offered by companies, individuals computer knowledge and skill, and usage of credit and debit cards were also identified and are di scussed in this research. Key Words: Online utility bill Payment system; Credit card usage; e-commerce; adoption; User intention. Chapter 1 Introduction Today the improvement of e-commerce has led to the derivation of various internet based activities. For e.g. companies are able to conduct their business activities at all hours, reaching customers in all parts of the world thus expand their customer base without geographically being limited. Whereas in customers perspective, e-commerce provides a platform on which they can easily carry out the necessary transactions at their convenience. Hence even the companies which provide utility services are boldly revolutionizing their industry thus adopting internet for e-commerce purposes (Buccigross, 2000). This allows customers to make their utility bill payments directly through utility companies websites or through a third party website such as banks, financial institutions and aggregators. Online utility bill payment is when the customer makes his or her payment transactions online for the utility services obtained from a particular company. By paying utility bills via online, consumers have the benefits of avoiding crowds, queuing, parking problems, and cutting their travelling costs and time (Ramayah et al, 2005). Hence consumers could simply get their utility bills paid with just a click of their mouse. In Sri Lanka, the payment system of utility bills is rather different to the systems established in other countries. The utility bills usually arrive by post thus the consumers must visit the payment office in order to settle the payments. As mentioned earlier, this process is usually accompanied by queuing, parking problems, and limited payment options. For example, the CEB NWS DB only accepts payments made by cash or cheques at their payment counters. These issues can be considered as a hassle for people whose jobs are of hectic and stressful nature. Many utility companies in Sri Lanka have identified this problem thus have implemented various types of payment systems in order to provide their consumers with a wider choice when it comes to their payments (refer appendix A). Online utility bill payment is one of the elite choices of payment systems that have been implemented in the contemporary world. Problem Statement What are the factors shaping and influencing an individuals intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system? Problem Justification There is a lack of understanding as to what is really happening in the local context with regards to the adoption of new technological services related to the internet. Hence there are hardly any researches that have been carried out in order to understand the consumers view point with regards to online utility bill payment systems that have been implemented. Therefore the knowledge about consumers behaviour related to this area of study is vital for utility companies and other vendors operating in similar businesses in order to estimate the potential market available hence utilize the internet as a tool of opportunity for those companies to grow and expand their market. The study will also be essential for government utility companies (e.g. CEB) since they have not yet implemented the service of allowing the customers to pay their utility bills directly through the companies websites. The information originated from this research will enable both the government and private utility companies to identify the significance of the factors influencing the consumers intention to adopt online utility bill payment systems thus develop strategies to further enhance their business activities. Objectives of the Study To determine awareness level about online utility bill payment systems by consumers. To analyse the factors influencing the consumers intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. To find out the most accepted online utility bill payment options and the preferred bill payment modes by consumers. To analyse the degree of acceptance of an online utility bill payment system by consumers. To examine the impending future prospect of online utility bill payment systems in Sri Lanka. Significance of the Study This study will mainly facilitate the utility companies and other vendors in Sri Lanka to identify the factors influencing the consumers intention to adopt online utility bill payment systems, in this case physicians who are residing in Colombo, a highly skilled and a valued population in the country. Therefore by understanding such factors, companies will be able to eliminate the uncertainty levels and have a clear view about the potential market for online utility bill payment in Sri Lanka. This study will further help the utility companies develop enhanced strategies regarding the payment options that are being made available to their clients. Awareness about online utility bill payment will allow consumers to acclimatize to these new technologies thus exploit the advantages of the internet. The information and data that have been collected in this study will aid the future researchers conducting researches related to consumers intention to adopt online bill payment systems in general. Scope of the Study This study was carried out to empirically investigate the factors affecting the consumers intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. However, the survey sample of the study consisted only of physicians working in four (4) private hospitals situated within the Colombo city limits. Furthermore, the physicians were from various backgrounds thus to achieve results that are more realistic and to better signify the people that pay utility bills, the sample have to be more diversified in terms of age and geographical location (He Mykytyn, 2007), preferably homeowners who are responsible for their respective household bill payments. Chapter 2 Literature Review Online Utility Bill Payment Online utility bill payment is when the consumer makes his/her payments for the utility service(s) obtained with the use of the internet. The types of utility services are illustrated in the table below. Today, the consumers trend in making utility bill payments is increasing particularly in the developed nations Brant (2008). In the Sri Lankan context however, although the country illustrates a steady growth in terms of internet usage especially from the users in the urban areas (Sathrasinghe, 2004), this has not been escorted by a similar growth in the number of consumers making online utility bill payments. In fact according to the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (2008), the overall transactions made by consumers over the internet illustrated a declining trend. Online Utility Bill Payment Models Options There are various payment models and payment options available to the customers when it comes to paying online utility bills unlike in the traditional (or offline) method of bill payment where the customer is limited to pay by either in cash, cheque, or electronic payment at a given payment centre. There are two types of online utility bill payment models, namely direct model and indirect model. The following table describe further details on these two models. Indirect Model (Third Party) Consumers pay any biller through a third party website such as a bank or portal, or by using software that interacts with the payers bank (Flynn Bowes, 2005) Automatic Bill Settlement by American Express (American Express, 2010) HSBC Easy Bill Settlement for Utility Bills (Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2010) With the evolution of payment options from barter to commodity-based, to currency and coin, to card-based and, more recently, to electronic network-based systems (Mantel, 2000), modern consumers have a wider choice when it comes to paying their utility bills via online. The table 3 below illustrates various online payment options available for consumers. Table 3 Online Payment Options Online Payment Options Definition Examples (Sri Lanka) Virtual Credit cards A disposable payment card that can be used to make purchases or payments over the internet (Economy Watch, 2010). Sampath Web card (Sampath Bank, 2010) E-cheques An electronic representation of a paper cheque (Acosta, 2008). e-cheques by Union Bank (New Sri Lanka, 2009) Smart cheques by Standard charted (Standard Chartered Bank, 2008) E-Wallets A software that has been installed on the consumers desktop which automatically fills payment forms (Acosta, 2008). Sampath e-wallet (Sampath Bank, 2010) Credit Cards (VISA, MasterCard American Express) The money for purchases or payments is credited directly to the consumers bank account, allowing consumer to pay later. HSBC credit cards (Premier, Platinum, Gold, Classic) (Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2010) Debit Cards The money for purchases or payments is deducted directly from the consumers checking account. HSBC VISA Debit card (Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2010) Sampath Bank Debit card (Sampath Bank, 2010) Online bank accounts Allows users to manage their bill payments through online banking Personal banking by HSBC (Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2010) Payeasy by Sampath Bank (Sampath Bank, 2010) Combank Online by Commercial Bank (Commercial Bank, 2010) Literate Review on Dependent Variable Given the fact that online bill payment is one of the fastest growing consumer activities on the internet that has being accepted by the business world today (McCormick, 2005), a few published empirical studies have specifically addressed the underlying factors that could materially affect customers adoption of an online utility bill payment system (He Mykytyn, 2007). Cheung et al (2003) have stated that theories such as the TRA, the TPB and the TAM are the most dominant theories that are been used to test studies related to the online consumer behaviour. Hence out of the three theories, TAM is considered as a suitable theory to analyse the factors influencing the physicians intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system (Taylor and Todd, 1995 cited Karami, 2006). (Please refer Appendix B for further details on the theories). Literature Review on Independent Variables In order to address the problem in this study, the following independent variables were selected as suggested by many previous studies. Perceived Characteristics Perceived risk Previous findings on the impact of perceived risk on consumer behaviour have suggested that the consumers consider adopting online payment methods more risky than tradition offline methods (Palvou 2003 and Koufaris et al 2002 cited He Mykytyn, 2007). In the Sri Lankan context, the risk of online utility bill payment is relative moderate. This is complemented by the fact that there are many banking services providing secure methods for the online financial transactions. However, according to the central banks statistics (2008), the total volume of transactions decreased by 5.7%. This indicates that there is a tendency that Sri Lankan consumers are concerned about the perceived risk associated with online payments in terms of security, trust and privacy. Perceived benefits the intention of online utility bill payment can be explained by the two components of TAM; PU and PEOU. Hence according to these components, when physicians consider online utility bill payments is more useful in terms of time saving, convenience and service reliability, and it is easy to use, they should be more likely to pay their utility bills online. Previous findings by (He Mykytyn, 2007 and Ramayah et al, 2006) revealed that perceived benefits are the significant drivers of consumers intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. These findings were also consistent with previous studies on TAM (Chan Lu, 2004 cited Ramayah et al, 2006). Consumer Characteristics Consumer characteristics variables include gender, age, and nature of occupation, credit/debit card usage, attitude towards innovative payment methods, and individuals personal computer knowledge and skills. Gender Most of the previous researches on online bill payment, it is found that males are more willing to pay their bills through online than females. However, in a study by Masters (2006) it was found that the gender difference between males and females rate of internet usage among physicians are diminishing. In the Sri Lankan context, the computer literacy between males and females are 22% and 18.7% respectively (Department of Census Statistics, 2009). This indicates that the gender differences in how each perceives internet technology are blurring. Age Most studies indicates that the tendency of younger consumers intention of online bill payment is much higher than that of old consumers. This maybe mainly due to the familiarity of the internet based activities at an early stage. The circumstances in Sri Lanka are also similar; this may be mainly due to the high percentage of computer literacy in young people than older people (Department of Census Statistics, 2009). However, in the case of online utility bill payment, a study by Mantel (2000) showed that older people are more likely to pay utility bills via online than young people. General physicians/ Specialists Although most previous researches did not find a significant positive relationship between the user intention in online bill payment and education level, in study by Masters (2006) an interesting relationship between the nature of the work and internet usage was revealed. The study showed that there is a greater tendency for specialists to use the internet more than general physicians (Masters, 2006). Credit/Debit Cards Usage A study by Hayashi Klee (2003) stated that consumers who intent to use new technology have a more tendency in utilizing electronic payment methods than those who do not. Though the credit cards usage in Sri Lanka has indicated a declining trend since the recessionary months of 2008 the debit card usages have shown a considerable increase. Thus this could be assumed as a factor influencing the intention to pay utility bills via online. Attitude Attitude refers to the ones evaluation of consequences on performing a particular behaviour (Karami, 2006). Thus attitude has long been shown to influence behavioural intentions (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980 cited Pavlou and Fygenson, 2006). Computer Skills In most cases this stands as a key barrier for adoption of online transactions. Computer skills are mainly a persons ability to understand the set-up of online payments and the ability to use such online payment systems. Most of previous studies indicate that there is a significant positive relationship between individuals computer skills and intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. (Please refer appendix C for the summarised table on literature review). Chapter 3 Methodology Secondary Data Analysis Population Sample The population selected for this study comprised of registered physicians in Sri Lanka. In order to obtain the sample, multistage sampling method was used. As illustrated in the figure below, initially cluster sampling method was used to divide the population into sub categories based on geographical area and then on obtaining a list of physicians employed in private hospitals in Colombo city, stratified sampling method was used to further divide the sample into homogeneous groups based on nature of occupation, hence a simple random sample was drawn from the two combined categories. (Please refer appendix D for further details). Secondary Data Analysis The Future of Online Utility Bill Payment Systems Although the idea of online utility bill payment is quite unfamiliar to most Sri Lankan households, online utility bill payments is one of the popular method of paying utility bills, mostly in developed countries such as the US. Hence according to a survey by the NLCCDG in 2005, 75% of the US cities had already implemented a separate webs5%ite for their citizens in order to make utility bill payment (IT Facts, 2005). According to Forrester Research, it is estimated that some47 million US households will pay utility bills online at the end of year 2010, which is a 75% increase from 2004 (illustrated in the figure below). Furthermore, the survey reported that among the consumers who are below the age of 30, the interest in online utility bill payment will grow by 219% and 32% of increase among baby boomers (BCR Access, 2006). Although there are no direct surveys that has been carried out in the Sri Lankan context with regards to online utility bill payments, according to the internet world stats website, the internet users have increased significantly during the past few years hence the percentage of penetration have increased by approximately 3% in year 2010 compared to 1.8% increase in year 2009 (internet world stats, 2010). The figure below illustrates the trend in internet users in Sri Lanka (source: internet world stats, 2010). Although the adoption of new technologies by the Sri Lankans is comparatively sluggish when compared to other Asian countries in the region, the government of Sri Lanka has taken numerous steps in order to enhance the e-commerce base activities. Hence one of the most significant episodes in the authorized regulation of e-commerce in Sri Lanka was the endorsement of the Electronic Transactions Act in 2006. This act was implemented in order to assist the commercial and financial activities by removing barriers to electronic transactions (Kariyawasam, 2008). Consequently since then many companies providing various services, especially utility services, have implemented systems that allows consumers to conduct their transactions via online. Chapter 4 Data Analysis The primary data for this study were collected through a survey based field study which consisted of thirteen questions (please refer appendix E for the questionnaire). The survey was administered to the physicians working at four major private hospitals in Colombo, namely Lanka Hospitals, Oasis Hospital, Asiri Surgical Hospital and Nawaloka Hospital. Fifty (50) questionnaires were randomly distributed among the physicians employed at all four hospitals and the responses were collected two days after the initial distribution of the survey. In total, forty four (44 i.e. 88%) physicians responded. Total of 29 items were used in this empirical study, including customer characteristics, perceived risk, perceived benefits, and merchants website and service features. To calculate the internal consistency of these items, a reliability analysis was performed by computing Cronbachs Alpha for each item. Hence all items are within the range of 0.746 (illustrated in the figure below) which is within the commonly accepted range, i.e., ÃŽÂ ± à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0.69 (He Mykytyn, 2007). According to the findings about the awareness level on online utility bill payment systems in Sri Lanka, the results indicated that in general all the respondents were moderately aware. However, when categorized according to the age, those of who were over 46 years old were only slightly aware about online utility bill payment systems, and male respondents demonstrated more knowledge on online utility bill payment systems than female respondents. 1= Never, 2= Almost never, 3= Sometimes, 4= Almost every time, 5= Every timePreferred Bill Payment Options The respondents mostly preferred to use credit and/or debit cards for their online transactions. The debit card usage frequency was higher than the credit card usage for online utility bill payments, although in general a higher number of respondents acquired a credit card. The indirect bill payment method was the most preferred among the respondents, i.e. most consumers preferred to pay their utility bills (excluding the telephone bills) through a third party website such as a bank or portal, or by using software that interacts with the payers bank (Flynn Bowes, 2005). Despite of any age differences, the consumers attitude towards online utility bill payment systems were positive. Hence most respondents thought that it is important that all companies must implement online bill payment systems as opposed to offline payment methods. Regression Analysis A regression analysis was performed using the individuals intention (UI) as the dependent variable and perceived risk (PR), perceived benefits (PB), merchants website service and features (MWSF) and computer skill (CK) as the independent variables. The Equation for this model is as follows Individuals Intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system (UI) = ÃŽÂ ²0 + ÃŽÂ ²1Perceived Risk (PR) +ÃŽÂ ²2 Perceived Benefits (PB) + ÃŽÂ ²3 Merchants Website Service Features (MWSF) + ÃŽÂ ²4 Individuals Computer Skill (CK) i.e. UIn = ÃŽÂ ²0 + ÃŽÂ ²1PRn +ÃŽÂ ²2PBn + ÃŽÂ ²3 MWSFn + ÃŽÂ ²4CKn Where ÃŽÂ ²01234 = Regression coefficients n = 1, 2, 3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 44 Table Regression Analysis Result Dependent Variable: Individuals Intention to Adopt an Online Utility Bill Payment Option Figure Framework on Factors Affecting the Individuals Intention to Adopt an Online Utility Bill Payment System .316 .418 -.281 .238 Individuals Intention to Adopt an Online Utility Bill Payment System Individuals Computer Skill Merchants Website Service Features Perceived Benefits Perceived Risks Therefore from the findings above, it is evident that perceived risks, perceived benefits and individuals computer skill variables indicate a positive relationship with the intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system variable. The merchants website service features variable, however, indicates a negative relationship, this explains that more than the services offered by certain merchants regarding online utility bill payments, respondents were more concerned about factors such as security, trust, privacy, time, and other beneficiaries when it comes to adopting an online utility bill payment system. Chapter 5 Conclusion Recommendation The main objective of this study was to empirically investigate the factors affecting the individuals intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system in Sri Lanka. The primary investigation on the topic identified that there are several factors influencing the adoption of online utility bill payment systems by consumers in the country. Since the country is still in its infancy of adopting online payment methods as oppose to offline payment methods, the study was conducted among physicians, a highly qualified and professional set consumers who are more likely to be in touch with new technologies. Thus the findings of this study are from a survey that consisted of 44 physicians employed at four major private hospitals in the Colombo city. The results indicated that although in general all the respondents were reasonably aware about the online utility bill payment systems that were available for them, the younger who were below the age of 30 were extremely aware about online utility bill payment systems compared to the rest of age groups. Additionally it was also found that male respondents were more aware about online payments than female respondents. The general usage of credit/debit cards and online bank accounts for the payments of utility bills was found to be relatively less. This can be also related to the finding from the secondary research which analysed that the usage of credit and debit cards has declined in Sri Lanka due to various reasons such as the economic turmoil and high interest charges applied by subsequent banks which issue the credit/ debit cards. Thus, the use of online bank accounts for the settlement of online utility bill payments showed a higher rate over credit and debit card usages. Moreover, although most respondents stated that they preferred to pay their telephone bills directly from the consequent merchants website, for other payments such water and electricity, most respondents preferred to adopt payment systems that were implemented by third party vendors such as banks. Concerning the consumers attitude towards online utility bill payment systems, majority of the respondents stated that it is important for utility service companies to mark their presences on the internet thus implement online payment systems. Interestingly, apart from the younger age group below 30, respondents between the ages 41-45 also indicated a high positive attitude towards the importance of online utility bill payment systems. Hence the survey revealed that most respondents were concerned about the credit cards frauds, security levels, and privacy when it came to making online payments. Thus these factors which fell under the variable perceived risks indicated a positive relationship with the individuals intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. Furthermore, it was found that respondents enthusiasm to make online utility bill payments also depended on perceived benefits, which included factors such as ease of use of the system, speed, avoidance of late payments and queues, and time. This also supported as positive with the individuals intention to adopt an online utility bill payment system. Moreover, individuals computer skill which was measured using the information based on the years of computer experience and internet experience which the respondents possessed supported positive (although weak) relationship with the adoption of an online utility bill payment system. Nevertheless, the impact of merchants website service and features were not considered as an important or influential factor by the respondents to adopt an online utility bill payment system. This may be due to the lack of design and service features that are made available to the customers by the existing utility companies. In conclusion, this investigation was carried out as an extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) which was initially developed by Davis in 1989 (cited in Ramayah et al., 2005); with additional variables that were assumed to affect the individuals intention to adopt online utility bill payment systems, which is a branch of e-commerce associated with online consumer behaviour. Hence according to the findings in this investigation, it could be assumed that the youthful consumers who have received a higher level of education are more aware about online bill payment systems thus are more notably agreeable to adopt online bill payment systems as a convenience way of settling utility bills. It can also be assumed that the method of online utility bill payment is not being widely accepted in Sri Lanka due to the lack in consumers confidence on security of payments, privacy issues, and their trust on particular merchants. Therefore companies must take necessary actions required to improve to consumers confidence about online bill payments and further emphasis and educate the consumers on particular benefits that will be offered to them through the utilisation of online bill payment systems.

International Trade Essay -- essays research papers

To export these goods you have to have an organization which deals with the rules of trade between nations. Such an international organization is the World Trade Organization (WTO). The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. Result:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  - is assurance -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consumers and producers know they can enjoy secure supplies and greater choice of the finished products. -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Producers and exporters know that foreign markets will remain open to them. Heart of the system are the: -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  WTO’s agreements -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The agreements are negotiated and signed by governments. They have to be ratified in their parliaments. World Trade Organization (WTO) -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  came into being in 1995 -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  deals with rules of trade between nations -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  the agreements are signed by the governments -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established in the wake of the Second World War -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It has more than 140 members and the top decision making body meets at least once every two years The 3 main purposes of WTO: - trade flow as freely as possible -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  means removing obstacles. -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  also means ensuring that individuals, companies and governments know what the trade rules are around the world, and giving them the confidence that there will be no sudden changes of policy. In other words, the rules have to be â€Å"transparent† and predictable. -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  to serve as a forum for Trade negotiations -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  dispute settlement Trade relations often involve conflicting interests. Contracts and agreements often need interpreting. The best way to solve these differences is based on an agreed legal foundation. Principles of the trading system The WTO agreements are lengthy and complex because they are legal texts covering a wide range of activities. They deal with: agriculture, textiles and clothing, banking, telecommunications, government purchases, industrial standards, food sanitation regulations, intellectual property, and much more. ... ...t, but it is no longer the main set of rules for international trade. And it has been updated. - The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade always dealt with trade in goods, and it still does. It has been amended and incorporated into the new WTO agreements. -While GATT no longer exists as an international organization, the GATT agreement lives on. - The old text is now called â€Å"GATT 1947†. - The updated version is called â€Å"GATT 1994†. The main differences GATT was ad hoc and provisional. The General Agreement was never ratified in members’ parliaments, and it contained no provisions for the creation of an organization. The WTO and its agreements are permanent. As an international organization, the WTO has a sound legal basis because members have ratified the WTO agreements, and the agreements themselves describe how the WTO is to function. The WTO has â€Å"members†. GATT had â€Å"contracting parties†, underscoring the fact that officially GATT was a legal text. GATT dealt with trade in goods. The WTO covers services and intellectual property as well. The WTO dispute settlement system is faster, more automatic than the old GATT system. Its rulings cannot be blocked. International Trade Essay -- essays research papers To export these goods you have to have an organization which deals with the rules of trade between nations. Such an international organization is the World Trade Organization (WTO). The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. Result:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  - is assurance -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consumers and producers know they can enjoy secure supplies and greater choice of the finished products. -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Producers and exporters know that foreign markets will remain open to them. Heart of the system are the: -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  WTO’s agreements -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The agreements are negotiated and signed by governments. They have to be ratified in their parliaments. World Trade Organization (WTO) -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  came into being in 1995 -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  deals with rules of trade between nations -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  the agreements are signed by the governments -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established in the wake of the Second World War -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It has more than 140 members and the top decision making body meets at least once every two years The 3 main purposes of WTO: - trade flow as freely as possible -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  means removing obstacles. -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  also means ensuring that individuals, companies and governments know what the trade rules are around the world, and giving them the confidence that there will be no sudden changes of policy. In other words, the rules have to be â€Å"transparent† and predictable. -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  to serve as a forum for Trade negotiations -  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  dispute settlement Trade relations often involve conflicting interests. Contracts and agreements often need interpreting. The best way to solve these differences is based on an agreed legal foundation. Principles of the trading system The WTO agreements are lengthy and complex because they are legal texts covering a wide range of activities. They deal with: agriculture, textiles and clothing, banking, telecommunications, government purchases, industrial standards, food sanitation regulations, intellectual property, and much more. ... ...t, but it is no longer the main set of rules for international trade. And it has been updated. - The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade always dealt with trade in goods, and it still does. It has been amended and incorporated into the new WTO agreements. -While GATT no longer exists as an international organization, the GATT agreement lives on. - The old text is now called â€Å"GATT 1947†. - The updated version is called â€Å"GATT 1994†. The main differences GATT was ad hoc and provisional. The General Agreement was never ratified in members’ parliaments, and it contained no provisions for the creation of an organization. The WTO and its agreements are permanent. As an international organization, the WTO has a sound legal basis because members have ratified the WTO agreements, and the agreements themselves describe how the WTO is to function. The WTO has â€Å"members†. GATT had â€Å"contracting parties†, underscoring the fact that officially GATT was a legal text. GATT dealt with trade in goods. The WTO covers services and intellectual property as well. The WTO dispute settlement system is faster, more automatic than the old GATT system. Its rulings cannot be blocked.